3.1 – The state and globalisation
3.2 – Global governance: political and economic
3.6 – Comparative theories
In early 2026, developments in global political institutions have continued to illustrate the realist view that true interstate cooperation is impossible and can only occur on a temporary basis where states feel it serves their self-interest. On 22 January 2026, the USA completed its withdrawal from the World Health Organization (WHO), ending its 78-year membership and halting all American funding and participation in the agency’s governance, operations, and flu-vaccine planning processes. The USA’s refusal to pay approximately US $260 million in outstanding dues from 2024-25, combined with its stated intention not to re-engage as an observer, has provoked widespread concern about the future of global health governance. Critics, including scientific bodies in the USA, have warned that this exit undermines collective preparedness and weakens the rules-based functions of what has previously been an apolitical and cornerstone international organisation.
Meanwhile, Russia’s abuse of international law enforcement mechanisms illustrates how power can distort rules-based systems for national ends. New investigations released in late January 2026 exposed that Russia has been the subject of more complaints about misuse of Interpol’s “Red Notice” system than any other state. Red notices effectively serve as internationally-enforceable arrest warrants, designed to detain criminals who flee across borders. Thousands of leaked files show that many notices issued by Russian authorities were aimed at dissidents and critics abroad, especially in the context of the Ukraine War, and more Russian notices have been overturned by Interpol than those of any other member country. This example suggests that even though major powers may remain part of globalised political institutions, they can still undermine them by failing to act in a genuinely “cooperative” manner.